Matriarchy to Patriarchy: The Gendered Roots of Power & Poverty

Part 4: The Transition to Patriarchal Societies – Causes and Effects

Introduction

How did societies that once embraced gender balance transition into patriarchal structures that persist today? This shift, influenced by climate change, technological advancements and social structures, reshaped gender roles in ways that still affect us.

As we continue our blog series, this fourth part explores the key factors behind the transition from matriarchal to patriarchal societies. While no single event led to this transformation, a combination of environmental, economic and social shifts contributed to the rise of male-dominated power structures. Understanding these transitions is crucial in challenging the systemic gender inequalities that remain ingrained in our world today.

However, the defining characteristic of a patriarchal society is that men hold greater power and authority, which subsequently leads to male privilege. Deeply ingrained biases result in men occupying the majority of leadership positions and controlling resources in both the public and private spheres, while women are relegated to secondary roles and perceived as weaker or more suited for domestic work.

As such, a woman’s primary role in a patriarchal society is that of a homemaker, mother or caregiver. This male dominance perpetuates beliefs and cultural norms that—either consciously or unconsciously—favour men over women. These beliefs are not only upheld by men but also by the majority of people in that society, regardless of gender.

How Patriarchy Emerged

1. Environmental & Climatic Factors

The last Ice Age began around 115,000 years ago and ended approximately 11,000 years ago. This period consisted of both extremely cold phases, during which glaciers advanced, and warmer phases that led to their retreat. Over this span of 100,000 years, the northern fauna was dominated by animals adapted to the cold, such as mammoths, mastodons, and woolly rhinoceroses. It is believed that these large mammals became extinct due to climate warming but, more significantly, due to extensive hunting by humans as they migrated into new territories.

When people refer to the “Ice Age,” they are typically referring to the most recent glacial period within the Quaternary period, which began approximately 21,000 years ago and ended 11,500 years ago. This Ice Age occurred simultaneously in both hemispheres, with the most extensive glaciations recorded in the Northern Hemisphere.

• In Europe, glaciers advanced, covering what is now the United Kingdom, Germany, and Poland.
• In North America, the entire continent was buried under ice.
• As a result of this glaciation, sea levels dropped by 120 meters, exposing vast land masses that were previously submerged.

These environmental changes played a crucial role in the evolutionary trajectory of many plant and animal species, influencing human migration patterns and genetic diversity.

2. Social Factors – The Emergence of the Family

Social structures are generally categorised into three primary institutions: marriage, family and descent. Marriage is the symbolic act that leads to the formation of a family, which, according to many researchers, serves as the foundation for kinship and lineage. These kinship structures help regulate inheritance, social obligations and economic exchanges between families.

A social structure consists of the relationships between individuals and groups within a society. It is composed of:

• Social institutions
• Social roles
• Social statuses (which can be either inherited or acquired)

All social structures involve some level of differentiation (hierarchy) since not all statuses are considered equal. However, hierarchical societies create significant disparities in access to wealth and power.

Key determinants of social status differences include:

• Gender-based roles – Men and women traditionally performed different tasks in all societies, with cultural norms shaping gender expectations.
• Age-based status – In traditional societies, an individual’s status increased with age.
• Merit vs. Inherited status – In meritocratic societies, social mobility was determined by individual skills and achievements, whereas in traditional societies, status was largely inherited.

As societies became more complex, family structures transitioned from extended kinship groups to nuclear family units characterized by:

• Shared residence
• Economic cooperation
• Reproductive obligations

These social shifts reinforced gender roles, with men increasingly assuming positions of power and control over property, wealth and social institutions.

3. Economic Factors – The Rise of Private Property

The transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary food production marked a fundamental shift in human societies. Rather than relying on wild resources, people began to domesticate animals and cultivate crops, leading to the concept of property ownership.

Key developments in animal domestication included:

• East Asian dogs were among the first domesticated animals (15,000 years ago), used for hunting, protection and companionship.
• Other domesticated animals followed, including sheep, chickens, turkeys, llamas, camels, goats, horses, cattle and pigs.
• Domesticated animals were used for meat, milk, hides, wool and labor (e.g., oxen for plowing).

The accumulation of livestock and land ownership led to economic inequality, as individuals with larger herds gained more wealth and power. Over time, social hierarchies emerged, where those who controlled land and food production dominated society.

Neolithic settlements began to show evidence of warfare, with:

• Palisaded villages (defensive walls)
• Weapons and broken bones indicating violent conflicts
• Hereditary leadership, where charismatic tribal chiefs passed power down through their lineage

These early inequalities set the foundation for the patriarchal systems that followed.

4. Technological Causes

The Role of Agriculture in Patriarchal Dominance

In 1861, Sir Henry Maine argued in Ancient Law that the patriarchal system was the original and universal form of social organization, whereas matriarchy was a temporary and unstable exception. In response, Johann Jakob Bachofen challenged this claim, asserting that matriarchy was the initial stage of primitive cultures.

Nearly a century later, the historian Fernand Braudel documented a major social transformation in Mesopotamian society. Around the 5th century BCE, Mesopotamian civilization transitioned from matriarchy and goddess worship to patriarchy and male-dominated rule.

Braudel argued that this shift was not the result of political or legal changes but rather technological advancements in food production—specifically, the replacement of the hoe with the plow.

• The plow required significantly more physical strength than earlier farming tools, leading men to dominate agriculture.
• As food production became essential for survival, the role of women diminished, reinforcing patriarchal norms.

The Modern Legacy of Patriarchy

Recent studies by Alberto Alesina, Paola Giuliano and Nathan Nunn provide empirical evidence supporting Braudel’s theory. Their research reveals a strong correlation between early agricultural practices and the status of women today.

Key findings include:

• Women descended from plow-based agricultural societies are less likely to work outside the home, hold political office or own businesses compared to women from societies that relied on hoe-based agriculture.
• The division of labor in early agricultural societies shaped cultural attitudes toward gender roles, with long-term effects on economic and social structures

Other Technological Advancements Reinforcing Male Supremacy

Additional technological developments further solidified male dominance:

• Microlithic weapons – Small, triangular, trapezoidal and crescent-shaped tools used in weaponry.
• The invention of the axe – Used for deforestation, enabling territorial expansion.
• The bow and arrow – The first mechanized projectile weapon, revolutionizing hunting and warfare.
• Land and sea transportation – The development of sleds, skis, dugout canoes and animal-powered carts expanded trade and mobility.
• Specialised craftsmanship – The production of pottery, bone tools and stone weapons increased efficiency in daily tasks.

As societies became increasingly militarised, male warriors and rulers gained control over both political and economic structures.

5. The Militarisation of Society

As settlements expanded and conflicts over resources intensified, warfare became a central aspect of societal organization. The need for military leadership further cemented male dominance.

• Rise of Warrior Classes: Societies that prioritised military strength placed men in positions of authority, as they were seen as protectors of land and resources.
• Enforcement of Hierarchical Structures: With growing territorial disputes, centralised leadership became necessary. The hierarchical structure of military command influenced governance, leading to male-dominated ruling classes.

This militarisation not only affected governance but also reinforced rigid gender roles, making the transition to patriarchy an almost inevitable consequence of expanding civilizations.

6. Religious Shifts & the Decline of Matriarchal Beliefs

The socio-economic transformation of societies was accompanied by significant religious changes, which further legitimised male dominance.

• Emergence of Male Deities: As patriarchal societies solidified, male gods associated with war, order and leadership began replacing fertility goddesses. Examples include:
  • Ares (Greek) & Mars (Roman) – Gods of war, symbolising conquest and protection.
  • Yahweh – The monotheistic God in Hebrew traditions, emphasising male authority.
• Reinterpretation of Religious Practices: Female deities were either diminished or absorbed into male-dominated pantheons. In some cases, women were even removed from religious roles they had traditionally held, further limiting their influence.

Religious systems played a crucial role in justifying the shift from matriarchal values of shared power to patriarchal systems based on male control and hierarchy.

7. Mythology and the Justification of Patriarchy: The Triumph of Paternal Law

The transition from matriarchy to patriarchy was not only a social and economic transformation but also a profound ideological shift reflected in mythology, religion and legal traditions. As patriarchal structures solidified, historical narratives and myths began to serve as justification for this new order, reinforcing male authority in governance, inheritance and moral judgment.

One of the most compelling examples of this transition is found in Greek mythology, where ancient legends reflect deeper societal struggles over power and lineage. The myth of Orestes, analysed by both Johann Jakob Bachofen and Friedrich Engels, serves as a symbolic representation of this shift—the moment when paternal law triumphed over maternal law.

Engels and the Myth of Orestes: The Triumph of Paternal Law

Engels cites Bachofen, who interpreted the myth of Orestes as a dramatic representation of the conflict between the declining “power of the mother” and the rising “power of the father.”

After Clytemnestra kills Agamemnon, she is, in turn, killed by Orestes. He is then pursued by the Furies, the demonic guardians of “maternal law,” who considered matricide to be the gravest of all crimes.

Brought before the Areopagus, convened by the goddess Athena, Orestes asks:
“Why do the Furies pursue me when I acted in the name of justice, yet they did not pursue Clytemnestra, who had murdered her husband?”

The response he receives:
“Because they were not related by blood!”

This suggests that “maternal law” was originally dominant, as matricide was considered the most heinous crime. However, Orestes is ultimately acquitted by the Areopagus, with Athena casting the decisive vote. This marks the moment when “paternal law” triumphed.

Why Is This Myth Important?

• The myth reflects a real historical transition from matrilineal (mother-centred) to patrilineal (father-centred) societies.
• It justifies the decline of matriarchal traditions and the rise of patriarchal laws.
• It shows how mythology was used to legitimise male dominance in legal and social systems.

What Did Engels Think About This?

• Engels believed that this myth was evidence of a real societal transformation—one that changed inheritance laws, power structures and gender roles.
• He saw this transition as a fundamental shift in human civilization, similar in importance to Darwin’s theory of evolution (which explained biological change) and Marx’s theory of surplus value (which explained economic change).
• His conclusion? Patriarchy was not “natural” but rather a historical development that replaced earlier, more egalitarian systems.

What Can We Learn From This?

• The story of Orestes is not just a myth—it represents how laws, traditions and beliefs were rewritten to justify male dominance. It illustrates how women lost their legal and social power over time, and how patriarchy was reinforced through religious and mythological narratives.

Conclusion & Looking Forward

The transition from matriarchy to patriarchy was not a sudden or uniform event but rather a complex interplay of environmental, technological and socio-political factors. While some societies retained elements of matrilineal structures, patriarchal norms eventually became dominant across most civilizations.

Understanding this historical transition is crucial in addressing present-day gender inequalities. If these systems were created, they can also be reformed.

Join the Conversation

📢 What do you think?
💬 How do you see historical gender shifts reflected in today’s society?
💬 What steps can we take to challenge inherited gender biases?

🔗 Read previous parts here:
• [Part 1: Breaking the Cycle – Regaining the Influence of the Feminine]
• [Part 2: The Transition – How Patriarchy Replaced Matriarchy]
• [Part 3: Matriarchal Societies and Their Characteristics]

✍️ Written by Isabela & S.I.T.

📌 Copyright Notice
“This article is the intellectual property of Isabela and S.I.T. Unauthorised reproduction, distribution, or use of this content without prior permission is strictly prohibited. For collaboration requests or permission to reference our work, please contact us directly.”